CARPENTRY FOR BOYS IN A SIMPLE LANGUAGE, INCLUDING CHAPTERS ON DRAWING, LAYING OUT WORK, DESIGNING AND ARCHITECTURE WITH 250 ORIGINAL ILLUSTRATIONS TEXT

top and bottom are longer and wider than the end pieces. [Illustration: _Fig. 41._] A box equal in all its dimensions may be made out of six boards, properly cut. Make an attempt in order to see if you can get the right dimensions. JOINTS.--For joining together boards at right angles to each other, such as box corners, drawers and like articles, tenons and mortises should never be resorted to. In order to make fine work the joints should be made by means of dovetails, rabbets or rebates, or by beveling or mitering the ends. BEVELING AND MITERING.--There is a difference in the terms "beveling" and "mitering," as used in the art. In Fig. 42 the joint A is _beveled_, and in Fig. 43 the joint B is _mitered_, the difference being that a bevel is applied to an angle joint like a box corner, while a miter has reference to a joint such as is illustrated in Fig. 43, such as the corner of a picture frame. [Illustration: _Fig. 42._] [Illustration: _Fig. 43._] PROPER TERMS.--It is the application of the correct terms to things that lays the foundation for accurate thinking and proper expressions in describing work. A wise man once said that the basis of true science consists in correct definitions. PICTURE FRAMES.--In picture frames the mitered corners may have a saw kerf (C) cut across the corners, as shown in Fig. 44, and a thin blade of hard wood driven in, the whole being glued together. DOVETAIL JOINTS.--It is in the laying out of the more complicated dovetail joints that the highest skill is required, because exactness is of more importance in this work than in any other article in joinery. In order to do this work accurately follow out the examples given, and you will soon be able to make a beautiful dovetail corner, and do it quickly. [Illustration: _Fig. 44._] PREPARING A BOX JOINT.--In order to match a box joint for the inner end of a table drawer, the first step is to select two work sides. One work side will be the edge of the board, and the other the side surface of the board, and on those surfaces we will put crosses, as heretofore suggested. [Illustration: _Fig. 45._] [Illustration: _Fig. 46._] [Illustration: _Fig. 47._] FIRST STEPS.--Now lap together the inner surfaces of these boards (Y, Z), so the ends are toward you, as shown in Fig. 45. Then, after measuring the thickness of the boards to be joined (the thinnest, if they are of different thicknesses), set your compasses, or dividers, for 1/4 inch, providing the boards are 1/2 inch thick, and, commencing at the work edge of the board, step off and point, as at A, the whole width of the board, and with a square make the two cross marks (B), using the two first compass points (A), then skipping one, using the next two, and so on. [Illustration: _Fig. 48._] [Illustration: _Fig. 49._] [Illustration: _Fig. 50._] When this is done, turn up the board Z (Fig. 46), so that it is at right angles to the board Y, and so the outer surface of the board Z is flush with the end of the board X, and with a sharp knife point extend the lines B along with the grain of the wood on board Z, up to the cross mark C. This cross mark should have been previously made and is located as far from the end of the board Z as the thickness of the board Y. We now have the marks for the outer surface of the board Z, and the end marks of board Y. For the purpose of getting the angles of the end of the board Z and the outer side of board Y, a cross line (D, Fig. 47) is drawn across the board X near the end, this line being as far from the end as the thickness of the board Z, and a vertical line (E) is drawn midway between the two first cross marks (A). Now, with your compass, which, in the meantime, has not been changed, make a mark (F), and draw down the line (G), which will give you the working angle at which you may set the bevel gage. Then draw down an angle from each alternate cross line (A), and turn the bevel and draw down the lines (H). These lines should all be produced on the opposite side of the board, so as to assure accuracy, and to this end the edges of the board also should be scribed. CUTTING OUT THE SPACES.--In cutting out the intervening spaces, which should be done with a sharp chisel, care should be observed not to cut over the shoulder lines. To prevent mistakes you should put some distinctive mark on each part to be cut away. In this instance E, H show the parts to be removed, and in Fig. 48 two of the cutaway portions are indicated. When the end of the board Z is turned up (Fig. 49), it has merely the longitudinal parallel lines B. The bevel square may now be used in the same manner as on the side of the board Y, and the fitting angles will then be accurately true. This is shown in Fig. 50, in which, also, two of the cutaway parts are removed. TOOLS USED IN LAYING OUT TENONS AND MORTISES.--A sharp-pointed knife must always be used for making all marks. Never employ an awl for this work, as the fiber of the wood will be torn up by it. A small try square should always be used (not the large iron square), and this with a sharp-pointed compass and bevel square will enable you to turn out a satisfactory piece of work. The foregoing examples, carefully studied, will enable you to gather the principles involved in laying off any work. If you can once make a presentable box joint, so that all the dovetails will accurately fit together, you will have accomplished one of the most difficult phases of the work, and it is an exercise which will amply repay you, because you will learn to appreciate what accuracy means. CHAPTER VI THE USES OF THE COMPASS AND THE SQUARE THE SQUARE.--The square is, probably, the oldest of all tools, and that, together with the compass, or dividers, with which the square is always associated, has constituted the craftsman's emblem from the earliest historical times. So far as we now know, the plain flat form, which has at least one right angle and two or more straight edges, was the only form of square used by the workman. But modern uses, and the development of joinery and cabinet making, as well as the more advanced forms of machinery practice, necessitated new structural forms in the square, so that the bevel square, in which there is an adjustable blade set in a handle, was found necessary. THE TRY SQUARE.--In the use of the ordinary large metal square it is necessary to lay the short limb of the square on the face of the work, and the long limb must, therefore, rest against the work side or edge of the timber, so that the scribing edge of the short limb does not rest flat against the work. As such a tool is defective in work requiring accuracy, it brought into existence what is called the try square, which has a rectangular handle, usually of wood, into which is fitted at one end a metal blade, which is at right angles to the edge of the handle. The handle, therefore, always serves as a guide for the blade in scribing work, because it lies flat down on the work. THE T-SQUARE is another modification of the try square, its principal use being for draughting purposes. THE COMPASS.--The compass is one of the original carpenter's tools. The difference between _compass_ and _dividers_ is that compasses have adjustable pen or pencil points, whereas dividers are without adjustable points. Modern work has brought refinements in the character of the compass and dividers, so that we now have the bow-compass, which is, usually, a small tool, one leg of which carries a pen or pencil point, the two legs being secured together, usually, by a spring bow, or by a hinged joint with a spring attachment. PROPORTIONAL DIVIDERS.--A useful tool is called the proportional dividers, the legs of which are hinged together intermediate the ends, so that the pivotal joint is adjustable. By means of this tool the scale of work may be changed, although its widest field of usefulness is work laid off on a scale which you intend to reduce or enlarge proportionally. DETERMINING ANGLES.--Now, in order to lay out work the boy should know quickly and accurately how to determine various angles used or required in his work. The quickest way in which to learn this is to become familiar with the degree in its various relations. [Illustration: _Fig. 51._] DEFINITION OF DEGREE.--A degree is not a measure, as we would designate a foot or a pound to determine distance or quantity. It is used to denote a division, space, interval or position. To illustrate, look at the circle, Fig. 51. The four cardinal points are formed by the cross lines (A, B), and in each one of the quadrants thus formed the circle is divided into 90 degrees. Look at the radial lines (C, D), and you will find that the distance between these lines is different along the curved line (E) than along the curved line (F). The degree is, therefore, to indicate only the space, division or interval in the circle. THE MOST IMPORTANT ANGLE.--Most important for one to know at a glance is that of 45 degrees, because the one can the more readily calculate the other degrees, approximately, by having 45 degrees once fixed in the mind, and impressed on the visual image. With a square and a compass it is a comparatively easy matter accurately to step off 45 degrees, as it is the line C, midway between A and B, and the other degrees may be calculated from the line C and the cardinal lines A or B. DEGREES WITHOUT A COMPASS.--But in the absence of a compass and when you do not wish to step off a circle, you will in such case lay down the square, and mark off at the outer margin of the limbs two equal dimensions. Suppose we take 2 inches on each limb of the square. The angle thus formed by the angle square blade is 45 degrees. To find 30 degrees allow the blade of the angle square to run from 2 inches on one limb to 3-1/2 inches on the other limb, and it will be found that for 15 degrees the blade runs from 2 inches on one limb to 7-1/2 inches on the other limb. It would be well to fix firmly these three points, at least, in your mind, as they will be of the utmost value to you. It is a comparatively easy matter now to find 10 degrees or 25 degrees, or any intermediate line. WHAT DEGREES ARE CALCULATED FROM.--The question that now arises is what line one may use from which to calculate degrees, or at what point in the circle zero is placed. Degrees may be calculated either from the horizontal or from the vertical line. Examine Fig. 53. The working margin indicated by the cross mark is your base line, and in specifying an angle you calculate it from the work edge. Thus, the line A indicates an angle of 30 degrees. The dotted line is 45 degrees. [Illustration: _Fig. 52._] [Illustration: _Fig. 53._] [Illustration: _Fig. 54._] THE DIVIDERS.--The dividers are used not only for scribing circles, but also for stepping and dividing spaces equally. There is a knack in the use of the dividers, where accuracy is wanted, and where the surface is of wood. Unless the utmost care is observed, the spaces will be unequal, for the reason that the point of the dividers will sink more deeply into the wood at some places than at others, due to the uneven texture of the wood grain. It will be better to make a line lengthwise, and a cross line (A) for starting (see Fig. 54). You may then insert one point of the dividers at the initial mark (B), and describe a small arc (C). Then move the dividers over to the intersection of the arc (C) on the line, and make the next mark, and so on. Some useful hints along this same line will be found under the chapter on Drawing, which should be carefully studied. CHAPTER VII HOW THE DIFFERENT STRUCTURAL PARTS ARE DESIGNATED THE RIGHT NAME FOR EVERYTHING.--Always make it a point to apply the right term to each article or portion of a structure. Your explanation, to those who do know the proper technical terms, will render much easier a thorough understanding; and to those who do not know, your language will be in the nature of an education. PROPER DESIGNATIONS.--Every part in mechanism, every point, curve and angle has its peculiar designation. A knowledge of terms is an indication of thoroughness in education, and, as heretofore stated, becomes really the basis of art, as well as of the sciences. When you wish to impart information to another you must do it in terms understood by both. Furthermore, and for this very reason, you should study to find out how to explain or to define the terms. You may have a mental picture of the structure in your mind, but when asked to explain it you are lost. LEARNING MECHANICAL FORMS.--Suppose, for example, we take the words _segment_ and _sector_. Without a thorough understanding in your own mind you are likely to confuse these terms by taking one for the other. But let us assume you are to be called upon to explain a sector to some one who has no idea of terms and their definitions. How would you describe it? While it is true it is wedge-shaped, you will see by examining the drawing that it is not like a wedge. The sector has two sides running from a point like a wedge, but the large end of the sector is curved. If you were called upon to define a segment you might say it had one straight line and one curve, but this would not define it very lucidly. Therefore, in going over the designations given, not only fix in your mind the particular form, but try to remember some particular manner in which you can clearly express the form, the shape or the relation of the parts. For your guidance, therefore, I have given, as far as possible, simple figures to aid you in becoming acquainted with structures and their designations, without repeating the more simple forms which I have used in the preceding chapters. [Illustration: _Fig. 55.-Fig. 65._] 55. _Arcade._--A series of arches with the columns or piers which support them, the spandrels above, and other parts. 56. _Arch._--A curved member made up, usually, of separate wedge-shaped solids, A. K, Keystone; S, Springers; C, Chord, or span. 57. _Buttress._--A projecting mass of masonry. A, used for resisting the thrust of an arch, or for ornamentation; B, a flying buttress. 58. _Chamfer._--The surface A formed by cutting away the arris or angle formed by two faces, B, C, of material. 59. _Cotter or Cotter Pin._--A pin, A, either flat, square or round, driven through a projecting tongue to hold it in position. 60. _Crenelated._--A form of molding indented or notched, either regularly or irregularly. 61. _Crosses._--1. Latin cross, in the Church of Rome carried before Bishops. 2. Double cross, carried before Cardinals and Bishops. 3. Triple or Papal cross. 4. St. Andrew's and St. Peter's cross. 5. Maltese cross. 6. St. Anthony or Egyptian cross. 7. Cross of Jerusalem. 8. A cross patté or fermé (head or first). 9. A cross patonce (that is, growing larger at the ends). 10. Greek cross. 62. _Curb Roof._--A roof having a double slope, or composed on each side of two parts which have unequal inclinations; a gambrel roof. 63. _Cupola._--So called on account of its resemblance to a cup. A roof having a rounded form. When on a large scale it is called a dome. _Crown Post._--See _King Post_. 64. _Console._--A bracket with a projection not more than half its height. 65. _Corbels._--A mass of brackets to support a shelf or structure. Largely employed in Gothic architecture. [Illustration: _Fig. 66.-Fig. 79._] 66. _Dormer._--A window pierced in a roof and so set as to be vertical, while the roof slopes away from it. Also called a _Gablet_. 67. _Dowel._--A pin or stud in one block, or body, designed to engage with holes in another body to hold them together in alignment. 68. _Drip._--That part of a cornice or sill course A, or other horizontal member which projects beyond the rest, so as to divert water. 69. _Detents._--Recesses to lock or to serve as a stop or holding place. 70. _Extrados._--The exterior curve of an arch, especially the upper curved face A. B is the _Intrados_ or _Soffit_. 71. _Engrailed._--Indented with small concave curves, as the edge of a bordure, bend, or the like. 72. _Facet._--The narrow plain surface, as A, between the fluting of a column. 73. _Fret, Fretwork._--Ornamental work consisting of small fillets, or slats, intersecting each other or bent at right angles. Openwork in relief, when elaborated and minute in all its parts. Hence any minute play of light and shade. A, Japanese fretwork. B, Green fret. 74. _Frontal_, also called _Pediment_.--The triangular space, A, above a door or window. 75. _Frustums._--That part of a solid next the base, formed by cutting off the top; or the part of any solid, as of a cone, pyramid, etc., between two planes, which may either be parallel or inclined to each other. 76. _Fylfat._--A rebated cross used as a secret emblem and worn as an ornament. It is also called _Gammadium_, and more commonly known as _Swastika_. 77. _Gambrel Roof._--A curb roof having the same section in all its parts, with a lower, steeper and longer part. See _Curb Roof_ and distinguish difference. 78. _Gargoyle._--A spout projecting from the roof gutter of a building, often carved grotesquely. 79. _Gudgeon._--A wooden shaft, A, with a socket, B, into which is fitted a casting, C. The casting has a _gudgeon_, D. [Illustration: _Fig. 80.-Fig. 93._] 80. _Guilloche._--An ornament in the form of two or more bands or strings twisted together or over or through each other. 81. _Half Timbered._--Constructed of a timber frame, having the spaces filled in with masonry. 82. _Hammer Beam._--A member of one description of roof truss, called hammer-beam truss, which is so framed as not to have a tie beam at the top of the wall. A is the _hammer beam_, and C the pendant post. 83. _Haunches._--The parts A, A, on each side of the crown of an arch. Each haunch is from one-half to two-thirds of the half arch. 84. _Header._--A piece of timber, A, fitted between two trimmers, B, B, to hold the ends of the tail beams, C, C. 85. _Hip Roof._--The external angle formed by the meeting of two sloping sides or skirts of a roof which have their wall plates running in different directions. 86. _Hood Molding._--A projecting molding over the head of an arch, as at A, forming the outer-most member of the archivolt. 87. _Inclave._--The border, or borders, having a series of dovetails. One variation of molding or ornamentation. 88. _Interlacing Arch._--Arches, usually circular, so constructed that their archivolts, A, intersect and seem to be interlaced. 89. _Invected._--Having a border or outline composed of semicircles or arches, with the convexity outward. The opposite of engrailed. 90. _Inverted Arch._--An arch placed with the crown downward; used in foundation work. 91. _Keystone._--The central or topmost stone, A, of an arch, sometimes decorated with a carving. 92. _King Post._--A member, A, of a common form of truss for roofs. It is strictly a tie intended to prevent the sagging of the tie beam, B, in the middle. If there are struts, C, supporting the rafters, D, they extend down to the foot of the _King Post_. 93. _Label._--The name given to the projecting molding, A, around the top of the door opening. A form of mediæval architecture. [Illustration: _Fig. 94.-Fig. 104._] 94. _Louver._--The sloping boards, A, set to shed rain water outward in an opening of a frame, as in belfry windows. 95. _Lintel._--A horizontal member. A spanning or opening of a frame, and designed to carry the wall above it. 96. _Lug._--A. projecting piece, as A, to which anything is attached, or against which another part, like B, is held. 97. _M-Roof._--A kind of roof formed by the junction of two common roofs with a valley between them, so the section resembles the letter M. 98. _Mansard Roof._--A hipped curb roof, that is, a roof having on all sides two slopes, the lower one, A, being steeper than the upper portion or deck.