CARPENTRY FOR BOYS IN A SIMPLE LANGUAGE, INCLUDING CHAPTERS ON DRAWING, LAYING OUT WORK, DESIGNING AND ARCHITECTURE WITH 250 ORIGINAL ILLUSTRATIONS TEXT

the hard ribs, if the grain runs at an angle to the course of the mortise. THE HARD-RIBBED GRAIN IN WOOD.--This peculiarity of the grain in ash makes it a beautiful wood when finished. Of the light-colored woods, oak only excels it, because in this latter wood each year's growth shows a wider band, and the interstices between the ribs have stronger contrasting colors than ash; so that in filling the surface, before finishing it, the grain of the wood is brought out with most effective clearness and with a beautifully blended contrast. THE EASIEST WORKING WOODS.--The same thing may be said, relatively, concerning cherry and walnut. While cherry has a beautiful finishing surface, the blending contrasts of colors are not so effective as in walnut. Oregon pine is extremely hard to work, owing to the same difficulties experienced in handling ash; but the finished Oregon pine surface makes it a most desirable material for certain articles of furniture. Do not attempt to employ this nor ash until you have mastered the trade. Confine yourself to pine, poplar, cherry and walnut. These woods are all easily obtainable everywhere, and from them you can make a most creditable variety of useful articles. Sugar and maple are two hard woods which may be added to the list. Sugar, particularly, is a good-working wood, but maple is more difficult. Spruce, on the other hand, is the strongest and toughest wood, considering its weight, which is but a little more than that of pine. DIFFERENCES IN THE WORKING OF WOODS.--Different woods are not worked with equal facility by all the tools. Oak is an easy wood to handle with a saw, but is, probably, aside from ash, the most difficult wood known to plane. Ash is hard for the saw or the plane. On the other hand, there is no wood so easy to manipulate with the saw or plane as cherry. Pine is easily worked with a plane, but difficult to saw; not on account of hardness, but because it is so soft that the saw is liable to tear it. FORCING SAWS IN WOOD.--One of the reasons why the forcing of saws is such a bad practice will be observed in cutting white or yellow pine. For cross-cutting, the saw should have fine teeth, not heavily set, and evenly filed. To do a good job of cross-cutting, the saw must be held at a greater angle, or should lay down flatter than in ripping, as by so doing the lower side of the board will not break away as much as if the saw should be held more nearly vertical. These general observations are made in the hope that they will serve as a guide to enable you to select your lumber with some degree of intelligence before you commence work. CHAPTER XIV WOOD TURNING ADVANTAGES OF WOOD TURNING.--This is not, strictly, in the carpenter's domain; but a knowledge of its use will be of great service in the trade, and particularly in cabinet making. I urge the ingenious youth to rig up a wood-turning lathe, for the reason that it is a tool easily made and one which may be readily turned by foot, if other power is not available. SIMPLE TURNING LATHE.--A very simple turning lathe may be made by following these instructions: THE RAILS.--Procure two straight 2" × 4" scantling (A), four feet long, and planed on all sides. Bore four 3/8-inch holes at each end, as shown, and 10 inches from one end four more holes. A plan of these holes is shown in B, where the exact spacing is indicated. Then prepare two pieces 2" × 4" scantling (C), planed, 42 inches long, one end of each being chamfered off, as at 2, and provided with four bolt holes. Ten inches down, and on the same side, with the chamfer (2) is a cross gain (3), the same angle as the chamfer. Midway between the cross gain (3) and the lower end of the leg is a gain (4) in the edge, at right angles to the cross gain (3). THE LEGS.--Now prepare two legs (D) for the tail end of the frame, each 32 inches long, with a chamfer (5) at one end, and provided with four bolt holes. At the lower end bore a bolt hole for the cross base piece. This piece (E) is 4" × 4", 21 inches long, and has a bolt hole at each end and one near the middle. The next piece (F) is 2" × 4", 14-1/2 inches long, provided with a rebate (6) at each end, to fit the cross gains (4) of the legs (C). Near the middle is a journal block (7). [Illustration: _Fig. 241. Frame details._] CENTERING BLOCKS.--Next provide a 4" × 4" piece (G), 40 inches long, through which bore a 3/4-inch hole (8), 2 inches from the upper end, and four bolt holes at right angles to the shaft hole (8). Then, with a saw split down this bearing, as shown at 9, to a point 4 inches from the end. Ten inches below the upper end prepare two cross gains (10), each an inch deep and four inches wide. In these gains are placed the top rails (A), so the bolt holes in the gains (10) will coincide with the bolt holes (11) in the piece A. Below the gains (10) this post has a journal block (12), intended to be in line with the journal block (7) of the piece F. [Illustration: _Fig. 242. Tail Stock._] Then make a block (H) 2" × 4", and 6 inches long. This also must have a shaft hole (B), and a saw kerf (14), similar to the arrangement on the upper end of the post (G); also bore four bolt holes, as shown. This block rests between the upper ends of the lugs (C). Another block (I), 2" × 4", and 6 feet long, with four bolt holes, will be required for the tail end of the frame, to keep the rails (A) two inches apart at that end. THE TAIL STOCK.--This part of the structure is made of the following described material: Procure a scantling (J), planed, 4" × 4", 24 inches long, the upper end of which is to be provided with four bolt holes, and a centering hole (15). At the lower end of the piece is a slot (16) 8 inches long and 1-1/2 inches wide, and there are also two bolt holes bored transversely through the piece to receive bolts for reinforcing the end. A pair of cheekpieces (K), 2" × 4", and each 12 inches long, are mitered at the ends, and each has four bolt holes by means of which the ends may be bolted to the upright (J). Then a step wedge (L) is made of 1-3/8" × 2" material, 10 inches long. This has at least four steps (17), each step being 2 inches long. A wedge 1-3/8 inches thick, 10 inches long, and tapering from 2 inches to 1-3/8 inches, completes the tail-stock. THE TOOL REST.--This is the most difficult part of the whole lathe, as it must be rigid, and so constructed that it has a revolvable motion as well as being capable of a movement to and from the material in the lathe. Select a good 4" × 4" scantling (M), 14 inches long, as shown in Fig. 243. Two inches from one end cut a cross gain (I), 1-1/2 inches deep and 1 inch wide, and round off the upper edge, as at 2. Then prepare a piece (N), 1 inch thick, 8 inches wide, and 10 inches long. Round off the upper edge to form a nose, and midway between its ends cut a cross gain 4 inches wide and 1-1/2 inches deep. The lower margin may be cut away, at an angle on each side of the gain. All that is necessary now is to make a block (O), 8 inches long, rounded on one edge, and a wedge (P). [Illustration: _Fig 243. Tool Rest._] A leather belt or strap (Q), 1-1/2 inches wide, formed into a loop, as shown in the perspective view (R), serves as a means for holding the rest rigidly when the wedge is driven in. MATERIALS.--Then procure the following bolts: 4-3/8" bolts, 10" long. 8-3/8" '' 6" '' 20-3/8" '' 5" '' 5-3/8" '' 9" '' THE MANDREL.--A piece of steel tubing (S), No. 10 gage, 3/4 inch in diameter, 11-1/2 inches long, will be required for the mandrel. Get a blacksmith, if a machine shop is not convenient, to put a fixed center (1) in one end, and a removable centering member (2) in the other end. On this mandrel place a collar (3), held by a set screw, and alongside of it a pair of pulleys, each 1-1/2 inches wide, one of them, being, say, 2 inches in diameter, and the other 3 inches. This mandrel is held in position by means of the posts of the frame which carry the split journal bearings. This form of bearing will make a durable lathe, free from chattering, as the bolts can be used for tightening the mandrel whenever they wear. [Illustration: _Fig. 244. Mandrel._] The center point (1) is designed to rest against a metal plate (4) bolted to the wooden post, as shown in the large drawing. FLY-WHEEL.--It now remains only to provide a fly-wheel and treadle with the communicating belt. The fly-wheel may be of any convenient size, or it may be some discarded pulley or wheel. Suppose it is two feet in diameter; then, as your small pulley is 2 inches in diameter, each revolution of the large wheel makes twelve revolutions in the mandrel, and you can readily turn the wheel eighty times a minute. In that case your mandrel will revolve 960 revolutions per minute, which is ample speed for your purposes. The wheel should be mounted on a piece of 3/4-inch steel tubing, one end having a crank 3 inches long. This crank is connected up by a pitman rod, with the triangularly shaped treadle frame. Such a lathe is easily made, as it requires but little metal or machine work, and it is here described because it will be a pleasure for a boy to make such a useful tool. What he needs is the proper plan and the right dimensions to carry out the work, and his own ingenuity will make the modifications suitable to his purpose. The illustration (Fig. 245) shows such a lathe assembled ready for work. THE TOOLS REQUIRED.--A few simple tools will complete an outfit capable of doing a great variety of work. The illustration (Fig. 246) shows five chisels, of which all other chisels are modifications. A and B are both oblique firmer chisels, A being ground with a bevel on one side only, and B with a bevel on each side. C is a broad gage, with a hollow blade, and a curved cutting edge, ground with a taper on the rounded side only. D is a narrow gage similarly ground, and E is a V-shaped gage. [Illustration: _Fig. 245._] [Illustration: _Fig. 246._] It may be observed that in wood-turning sharp tools are absolutely necessary, hence a good oil stone, or several small, round and V-shaped stones should be used. CHAPTER XV ON THE USE OF STAINS As this subject properly belongs to the painter and decorator, it is not necessary to go into details concerning the methods used to finish off your work. As you may not be able to afford the luxury of having your productions painted or stained, enough information will be given to enable you, if the character of the wood justifies it, to do the work yourself to a limited extent. SOFT WOOD.--As, presumably, most of your first work will be done with pine, poplar, or other light-colored material, and, as many people prefer the furniture to be dark in color, you should be prepared to accommodate them. USE OF STAINS.--Our subject has nothing to do with the technique of staining, but has reference, solely, to the use of stains. I recommend, therefore, that, since all kinds of stains are now kept in stock, and for sale everywhere, you would better rely upon the manufactured goods rather than to endeavor to mix up the paints yourself. STAINS AS IMITATIONS.--It will be well to remember one thing as to stains. Never attempt to stain anything unless that stain is intended to produce an imitation of some real wood. There are stains made up which, when applied, do not imitate any known wood. This is bad taste and should be avoided. Again you should know that the same stain tint will not produce like effects on the different light-colored woods. Try the cherry stain on pieces of pine, poplar, and birch, and you will readily see that while pine gives a brilliant red, comparatively speaking, pine or birch will be much darker, and the effect on poplar will be that of a muddy color. In fact, poplar does not stain cherry to good advantage; and for birch the ordinary stain should have a small addition of vermilion. By making trials of your stains before applying them to the furniture, you will readily see the value of this suggestion. GOOD TASTE IN STAINING.--Oak, mahogany, cherry, black walnut, and like imitations are always good in an artistic sense, but imitations of unfamiliar woods mean nothing to the average person. The too common mistake is to try to imitate oak by staining pine or poplar or birch. It may, with good effect, be stained to imitate cherry. Oregon pine, or some light-colored wood, with a strong contrasting grain may be used for staining in imitation of oak. GREAT CONTRASTS BAD.--Violent contrasts in furniture staining have the effect of cheapness, unless the contrasting outlines are artistically distributed throughout the article, from base to top finish. STAINING CONTRASTING WOODS.--Then, again, do not stain a piece of furniture so that one part represents a cheap, soft wood, and the other part a dark or costly wood. Imagine, for instance, a cabinet with the stiles, rails and mullions of mahogany, and the panels of pine or poplar, or the reverse, and you can understand how incongruous would be the result produced. On the other hand, it would not be a very artistic job to make the panels of cherry and the mullions and stiles of mahogany, because the two woods do not harmonize, although frequently wrongly combined. HARD WOOD IMITATIONS.--It would be better to use, for instance, ash or oak for one portion of the work, and a dark wood, like cherry or walnut, for the other part; but usually a cherry cabinet should be made of cherry throughout; while a curly maple chiffonier could not be improved by having the legs of some other material. These considerations should determine for you whether or not you can safely use stains to represent different woods in the same article. NATURAL EFFECTS.--If effects are wanted, the skilled workman will properly rely upon the natural grain of the wood; hence, in staining, you should try to imitate nature, because in staining you will depend for contrast on the natural grain of the wood to help you out in producing pleasing effects. NATURAL WOOD STAINS.--It should be said, in general, however, that a stain is, at best, a poor makeshift. There is nothing so pleasing as the natural wood. It always has an appearance of cleanliness and openness. To stain the wood shows an attempt to cover up cheapness by a cheap contrivance. The exception to this rule is mahogany, which is generally enriched by the application of a ruby tint which serves principally to emphasize the beautiful markings of the wood. POLISHING STAINED SURFACES.--If, on the other hand, you wish to go to the labor of polishing the furniture to a high degree, staining becomes an art, and will add to the beauty and durability of any soft or cheap wood, excepting poplar. When the article is highly polished, so a good, smooth surface is provided, staining does not cheapen, but, on the other hand, serves to embellish the article. As a rule, therefore, it is well to inculcate this lesson: Do not stain unless you polish; otherwise, it is far better to preserve the natural color of the wood. One of the most beautiful sideboards I ever saw was made of Oregon pine, and the natural wood, well filled and highly polished. That finish gave it an effect which enhanced its value to a price which equaled any cherry or mahogany product. CHAPTER XVI THE CARPENTER AND THE ARCHITECT A carpenter has a trade; the architect a profession. It is not to be assumed that one vocation is more honorable than the other. A _profession_ is defined as a calling, or occupation, "if not mechanical, agricultural, or the like," to which one devotes himself and his energies. A _trade_ is defined as an occupation "which a person has learned and engages in, especially mechanical employment, as distinguished from the liberal arts," or the learned professions. _Opportunity_ is the great boon in life. To the ambitious young man the carpenter's trade offers a field for venturing into the learned professions by a route which cannot be equaled in any other pursuit. In his work he daily enters into contact with problems which require mathematics of the highest order, geometry, the methods of calculating strains and stresses, as well as laying out angles and curves. This is a trade wherein he must keep in mind many calculations as to materials, number, size, and methods of joining; he must remember all the small details which go to make up the entire structure. This exercise necessitates a mental picture of the finished product. His imagination is thus directed to concrete objects. As the mind develops, it becomes creative in its character, and the foundation is laid for a higher sphere of usefulness in what is called the professional field. A good carpenter naturally develops into an architect, and the best architect is he who knows the trade. It is a profession which requires not only the artistic taste, but a technical knowledge of details, of how practically to carry out the work, how to superintend construction, and what the different methods are for doing things. The architect must have a scientific education, which gives him a knowledge of the strength of materials, and of structural forms; of the durability of materials; of the price, quality, and use of everything which goes into a structure; of labor conditions; and of the laws pertaining to buildings. Many of these questions will naturally present themselves to the carpenter. They are in the sphere of his employment, but it depends upon himself to make the proper use of the material thus daily brought to him. It is with a view to instil that desire and ambition in every young man, to make the brain do what the hand has heretofore done, that I suggest this course. The learned profession is yours if you deserve it, and you can deserve it only through study, application, and perseverance. Do well that which you attempt to do. _Don't_ do it in that manner because some one has done it in that way before you. If, in the trade, the experience of ages has taught the craftsman that some particular way of doing things is correct, there is no law to prevent you from combating that method. Your way may be better. But you must remember that in every plan for doing a thing there is some particular reason, or reasons, why it is carried out in that way. Study and learn to apply those reasons. So in your leisure or in your active moments, if you wish to advance, you must be alert. _Know for yourself the reasons for things_, and you will thereby form the stepping stones that will lead you upward and contribute to your success. CHAPTER XVII USEFUL ARTICLES TO MAKE As stated in the Introductory, the purpose of this book is to show _how to do the things_, and not to draw a picture in order to write a description of it. Merely in the line of suggestion, we give in this chapter views and brief descriptions of useful household articles, all of which may be made by the boy who has carefully studied the preceding pages. [Illustration: _Fig. 247._] This figure shows a common bench wholly made of material 1 inch thick, the top being 12 inches wide and 4 feet long. The legs are 14 inches high and 13 inches wide; and the side supporting rails are 3 inches wide. These proportions may, of course, be varied. You will note that the sides of the top or seat have an overhang of 1/2 inch on each margin. [Illustration: _Fig. 248._] [Illustration: _Fig. 249._] This is a common, square-top stool, the seat being 12" × 12", and the legs 14 inches high. Two of the pieces forming the legs are 10 inches wide and the other two 8 inches wide, so that when the wide pieces are nailed to the edges of the narrow pieces the leg body will be 10" × 10" and thus give the seat an overhang of 1 inch around the margins. [Illustration: _Fig. 250._] A most useful article is shown in Fig. 249. It is a blacking-box with a lid, a folding shoe rest and three compartments. The detached figure