CARPENTRY FOR BOYS IN A SIMPLE LANGUAGE, INCLUDING CHAPTERS ON DRAWING, LAYING OUT WORK, DESIGNING AND ARCHITECTURE WITH 250 ORIGINAL ILLUSTRATIONS TEXT

148. Drawing regular ellipse 86 149. Drawing irregular ellipse 88 150. Drawing spiral 89 151. Abscissa 90 152. Angle 91 153. Apothegm 91 154. Apsides, or apsis 91 155. Chord 91 156. Convolute 91 157. Conic sections 91 158. Conoid 91 159. Cycloid 91 160. Ellipsoid 91 161. Epicycloid 91 162. Evolute 91 163. Focus 91 164. Gnome 91 165. Hyperbola 91 167. Hypothenuse 91 168. Incidence 92 169. Isosceles triangle 92 170. Parabola 92 171. Parallelogram 92 172. Pelecoid 92 173. Polygons 92 174. Pyramid 92 175. Quadrant 92 176. Quadrilateral 92 177. Rhomb 92 178. Sector 92 179. Segment 92 180. Sinusoid 92 181. Tangent 92 182. Tetrahedron 92 183. Vertex 92 184. Volute 92 185. Band (molding) 94 186. Astragal (molding) 94 187. Cavetto (molding) 94 188. Ovolo (molding) 94 189. Torus (molding) 95 190. Apophyges (molding) 95 191. Cymatium (molding) 95 192. Ogee-recta (molding) 95 193. Ogee-reversa (molding) 96 194. Bead (molding) 96 195. Casement (molding) 97 196. The Doric column 98 197. Front of cabinet 100 198. Facia board 100 199. Molding on facia board 100 200. Ogee-recta on facia 101 201. Trim below facia 101 202. Trim below ogee 101 203. Trim above base 102 204. Trim above base molding 102 205. Shadows cast by plain moldings 103 206. Mortise and tenon joint 105 207. Incorrect mortising 105 208. Steps in mortising 106 209. The shoulders of tenons 108 210. Lap-and-butt joint 108 211. Panel joint 109 212. Scarfing 109 213. Tongue and groove 110 214. Beading 110 215. Outside beading finish 110 216. Edge beading 111 217. Corner beading 111 218. Point beading 111 219. Round edge beading 111 220. Beading and molding 111 221. First square house plan 117 222. First rectangular house plan 118 223. Square house to scale 119 224. Rectangular house to scale 120 225. Front elevation of square house 121 226. Elevation of rectangular house 121 227. Illustrating one-third pitch 122 228. Illustrating half pitch 122 229. The sills at the corner 123 230. The joist and sills 123 231. The plate splice 124 232. The rafters 125 233. The gutter 126 234. The cornice 127 234a. The finish without gutter 128 235. Common truss 130 236. Upright truss 131 237. Vertical upright truss 131 238. Warren girder 132 239. Extended Warren girder 132 240. Bowstring girder 132 241. Frame details of wood turning lathe 139 242. Tail stock details 140 243. Tool rest details 142 244. Section of mandrel 143 245. View of turning lathe 145 246. Turning tools 146 247. Bench 155 248. Stool 156 249. Blacking box 156 250. Easel 157 251. Hanging book rack 158 252. Book shelf 159 253. Wood box 160 254. Horizontal bars 161 255. Mission desk 161 256. Screen frame 162 257. Mission chair 162 258. Grandfather's clock 163 259. Frame for bookcase 164 260. Coal scuttle case 165 261. Mission arm chair 165 262. Dog house 168 263. Settle 167 264. Towel rack 168 265. Mission sofa frame 168 266. Bit and square level 170 267. Metal miter box 171 268. Parts of metal miter box 172 269. Angle dividers 173 270. An "odd job" tool 174 271. Universal-jaw brace 176 272. Taper-shank bit brace 176 273. Alligator-jaw brace 176 274. Steel frame breast drill 177 275. Steel frame breast drill 177 276. Steel frame breast drill 177 277. Details of metal plane 179 278. Rabbet, matching and dado plane 180 279. Molding and beading plane 181 280. Dovetail tongue and groove plane 182 281. Router planes 183 282. Router planes 183 283. Door trim plane 184 284. Gambrel roof 187 285. Purlin roof 188 286. Princess truss 189 287. Arched, or cambered, tie beam 190 288. The mansard 191 289. Scissors beam 192 290. Braced collar beam 193 291. Rib and collar truss 194 291-1/2. Hammer-beam truss 195 292. Bridle joints 197 293. Spur tenons 198 294. Saddle joints 198 295. Joggle joints 199 296. Framing joints 199 297. Heel joints 200 298. Stub tenon 200 299. Tusk tenon 201 300. Double tusk tenon 202 301. Cogged joints 203 302. Anchor joint 203 303. Deep anchor joint 204 CARPENTRY A PRACTICAL COURSE, WHICH TELLS IN CONCISE AND SIMPLE FORM "HOW TO DO IT" INTRODUCTORY Carpentry is the oldest of the arts, and it has been said that the knowledge necessary to make a good carpenter fits one for almost any trade or occupation requiring the use of tools. The hatchet, the saw, and the plane are the three primal implements of the carpenter. The value is in knowing how to use them. The institution of Manual Training Schools everywhere is but a tardy recognition of the value of systematic training in the use of tools. There is no branch of industry which needs such diversification, in order to become efficient. The skill of the blacksmith is centered in his ability to forge, to weld, and to temper; that of the machinist depends upon the callipered dimensions of his product; the painter in his taste for harmony; the mason on his ability to cut the stone accurately; and the plasterer to produce a uniform surface. But the carpenter must, in order to be an expert, combine all these qualifications, in a greater or less degree, and his vocation may justly be called the King of Trades. Rightly, therefore, it should be cultivated in order to learn the essentials of manual training work. But there is another feature of the utmost importance and value, which is generally overlooked, and on which there is placed too little stress, even in many of the manual training schools. The training of the mind has been systematized so as to bring into operation the energies of all the brain cells. Manual training to be efficient should, at the same time, be directed into such channels as will most widely stimulate the muscular development of the child, while at the same time cultivating his mind. There is no trade which offers such a useful field as carpentry. It may be said that the various manual operations bring into play every muscle of the body. The saw, the plane, the hammer, the chisel, each requires its special muscular energy. The carpenter, unlike the blacksmith, does not put all his brawn into his shoulders, nor develop his torso at the expense of his other muscles, like the mason. It may also be said that, unlike most other occupations, the carpenter has both out-of-door and indoor exercise, so that he is at all times able to follow his occupation, summer or winter, rain or shine; and this also further illustrates the value of this branch of endeavor as a healthful recreation. It is the aim of this book to teach boys the primary requirements--not to generalize--but to show how to prepare and how to do the work; what tools and materials to use; and in what manner the tools used may be made most serviceable, and used most advantageously. It would be of no value to describe and illustrate how a bracket is made; or how the framework of a structure is provided with mortises and tenons in order to hold it together. The boy must have something as a base which will enable him to design his own creations, and not be an imitator; his mind must develop with his body. It is the principal aim of this book to give the boy something to think about while he is learning how to bring each individual part to perfection. If the boy understands that there is a principle underlying each structural device; that there is a reason for making certain things a definite way, he is imbued with an incentive which will sooner or later develop into an initiative of his own. It is this phase in the artisan's life which determines whether he will be merely a machine or an intelligent organism. This work puts together in a simple, concise form, not only the fundamentals which every mechanic should learn to know, but it defines every structural form used in this art, and illustrates all terms it is necessary to use in the employment of carpentry. A full chapter is devoted to drawings practically applied. All terms are diagrammed and defined, so that the mind may readily grasp the ideas involved. Finally, it will be observed that every illustration has been specially drawn for this book. We have not adopted the plan usually followed in books of this class, of taking stock illustrations of manufacturers' tools and devices, nor have we thought it advisable to take a picture of a tool or a machine and then write a description around it. We have illustrated the book to explain "_how to do the work_"; also, to teach the boy what the trade requires, and to give him the means whereby he may readily find the form of every device, tool, and structure used in the art. CHAPTER I TOOLS AND THEIR USES KNOWLEDGE OF TOOLS.--A knowledge of tools and their uses is the first and most important requirement. The saw, the plane, the hatchet and the hammer are well known to all boys; but how to use them, and where to use the different varieties of each kind of tool, must be learned, because each tool grew out of some particular requirement in the art. These uses will now be explained. A FULL KIT OF TOOLS.--A kit of tools necessary for doing any plain work should embrace the following: 1. A Hatchet. 2. A Claw Hammer--two sizes preferred. 3. Cross-cut Saw, 20 inches long. 4. Rip Saw, 24 inches long. 5. Wooden Mallet. 6. Jack Plane. 7. Smoothing Plane. 8. Compass Saw. 9. Brace. 10. Bits for Brace, ranging from 1/4 inch to 1 inch diameter. 11. Several small Gimlets. 12. Square. 13. Compass. 14. Draw-knife. 15. Rule. 16. Two Gages. 17. Set of Firmer Chisels. 18. Two Mortising Chisels. 19. Small Back Saw. 20. Saw Clamps. 21. Miter Box. 22. Bevel Square. 23. Small Hand Square. 24. Pliers. 25. Pair of Awls. 26. Hand Clamps. 27. Set Files. 28. Glue Pot. 29. Oil Stone. 30. Grindstone. 31. Trusses. 32. Work Bench. 33. Plumb Bob. 34. Spirit Level. THE HATCHET.--The hatchet should be ground with a bevel on each side, and not on one side only, as is customary with a plasterer's lathing hatchet, because the blade of the hatchet is used for trimming off the edges of boards. Unless ground off with a bevel on both sides it cannot be controlled to cut accurately. A light hatchet is preferable to a heavy one. It should never be used for nailing purposes, except in emergencies. The pole of the hammer--that part which is generally used to strike the nail with--is required in order to properly balance the hatchet when used for trimming material. [Illustration: _Fig. 2._] THE CLAW HAMMER.--This is the proper tool for driving nails and for drawing them out. Habits should be formed with the beginner, which will be of great service as the education proceeds. One of these habits is to persist in using the tool for the purpose for which it was made. The expert workman (and he becomes expert because of it) makes the hammer do its proper work; and so with every other tool. [Illustration: _Fig. 3._] [Illustration: _Fig. 4._] ABOUT SAWS.--There are four well-defined kinds. First, a long, flat saw, for cross-cutting. Second, a slightly larger saw for ripping purposes. Third, a back saw, with a rib on the rear edge to hold the blade rigid, used for making tenons; and, fourth, a compass or keyhole saw. CROSS-CUTS.--The difference between a cross-cut and a rip saw is, that in the latter the teeth have less pitch and are usually larger than in the cross-cut saw. The illustrations (Figs. 13 and 14) will distinctly show the difference in the teeth. When a cross-cut saw is used for ripping along the grain of the wood, the teeth, if disposed at an angle, will ride over the grain or fiber of the wood, and refuse to take hold or bite into the wood. On the other hand, if the rip saw is used for cross-cutting purposes, the saw kerf will be rough and jagged. [Illustration: _Fig. 5._] The back saw is used almost exclusively for making tenons, and has uniformly fine teeth so as to give a smooth finish to the wood. PLANES.--The plane may be called the æsthetic tool in the carpenter's kit. It is the most difficult tool to handle and the most satisfactory when thoroughly mastered. How to care for and handle it will be referred to in a subsequent chapter. We are now concerned with its uses only. Each complete kit must have three distinct planes, namely, the jack plane, which is for taking off the rough saw print surface of the board. The short smoothing plane, which is designed to even up the inequalities made by the jack plane; and the long finishing plane, or fore plane, which is intended to straighten the edges of boards or of finished surfaces. [Illustration: _Fig. 6. Jack plane bit._]